Process for preparing high stability, high activity materials and processes for using same

ABSTRACT

A process for preparing high stability, high activity biocatalytic materials is disclosed and processes for using the same. The process involves coating of a material or fiber with enzymes and enzyme aggregate providing a material or fiber with high biocatalytic activity and stability useful in heterogeneous environments. In one illustrative approach, enzyme “seeds” are covalently attached to polymer nanofibers followed by treatment with a reagent that crosslinks additional enzyme molecules to the seed enzymes forming enzyme aggregates thereby improving biocatalytic activity due to increased enzyme loading and enzyme stability. This approach creates a useful new biocatalytic immobilized enzyme system with potential applications in bioconversion, bioremediation, biosensors, and biofuel cells.

This invention was made with Government support under ContractDE-AC05-76RLO1830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. TheGovernment has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to process for preparing highstability, high activity biocatalytic materials and processes for usingsame. The materials find application in such areas as biosensors,bioconversion, bioremediation, and biofuel cells.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Enzymes are highly specific catalysts used increasingly for applicationsthat include fine-chemical synthesis, pharmaceuticals, food processing,detergent applications, biosensors, bioremediation, protein digestion inproteomic analysis, and biofuel cells. Despite the variety of enzymesand methods available, development of both stable and active enzymesystems remains a challenging issue in realizing successful use ofenzymes for many practical applications. Recent attention has focused onuse of nanostructured materials including mesoporous media,nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and nanofibers as enzymatic supports,as such materials provide large surface areas that can lead to highvolumetric enzyme activity. Nanofibers offer a number of attractivefeatures compared with other nanostructures. First, nanofibers do nothave the same mass transfer limitations of other nanostructures such asmesoporous media due to their reduced thicknesses. Second, nanofibersare easily formed or processed into various structures such as non-wovenmats, well-aligned arrays, and/or membranes—all with controllablecompositions and sizes. However, loading capacity by known methods islimited to monolayers. Accordingly, new processes are needed that canfurther improve enzyme loading leading to increased overall enzymaticactivity.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A process for preparing high stability, high activity biocatalyticmaterials is disclosed and processes for using same. In one aspect, theprocess involves providing a material having one or more functionalgroups capable of covalent attachment to functional groups ofcrosslinked enzymes and enzyme aggregates forming a coating on thematerial when attached, wherein the covalent attachment between thefunctional group(s) on the surface of the material and the enzymes andenzyme aggregates in the coating provides substantial stability to thecoating and the biocatalytic material. The biocatalytic activity andenzyme loading capacity of the material is greater than that of amonolayer of enzymes, respectively.

In various embodiments, the material comprises fibers selected fromnanofibers, microfibers, macrofibers, nanotubes, carbon nanotubes,microtubes, macrotubes, or combinations thereof.

In other embodiments, the material comprises at least one memberselected from polymers, co-polymers, glasses, inorganics, ceramics,composites, or combinations thereof.

In other embodiments, functional group(s) of the material, fibers,enzymes and/or enzyme aggregates comprise a member selected fromdi-aldehydes, glutaraldehyde [CAS No. 111-30-8]), aldehydes (—CHO),di-imides, di-isocyanates, isocyanates (—NCO), di-anhydrides,anhydrides, di-epoxides, epoxides, aminyl (—NH), sulfhydryl (—SH),carboxyl (—COOH), alcohols (—OH), silyl, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, carbonyl functional groups of the anhydride co-polymermolecule of the fibers provides for covalent attachment to functionalgroups of the enzymes and enzyme aggregates that are furthercross-linked with a crosslinking reagent to other enzymes forming enzymeaggregates at the surface of the fibers.

In other embodiments, the fibers have thicknesses of from about 5 nm toabout 30,000 nm.

In other embodiments, fibers have lengths greater than or equal to about1,000 nm.

In another aspect, stability of the material comprises a duration ofgreater than about 100 days under shaking conditions at 200 rpm in anaqueous buffer at room temperature without measurable loss in activity.

In another embodiment, the biocatalytic material includes a multilayercoating comprising enzymes and/or enzyme aggregates.

In another embodiment, the biocatalytic material includes two or morecoating layers comprising enzymes and/or enzyme aggregates.

In another embodiment, the biocatalytic material includes a coating thatis other than a monolayer of enzymes and/or enzyme aggregates.

In another embodiment, crosslinking of the enzyme aggregates attached tothe material is effected in conjunction with a crosslinking reagent.

In another embodiment, attachment of the enzyme and enzyme aggregatecoating to the surface of the material is effected in conjunction withuse of seed enzymes.

In other embodiments, attachment of the coating to the surface of thematerial is effected step-wise in conjunction with use of seed enzymes,wherein the seed enzymes further crosslink with enzyme aggregatesforming the coating at the surface of the material or fiber(s).

In another embodiment, attachment of the enzyme and enzyme aggregatecoating to the surface of the material is by direct attachment of thefunctional groups between the material and the coating.

In another embodiment, the coating of the materials or fiber(s) issubstantially immobilized.

In another embodiment, the biocatalytic material is used in abiocatalytic process or system.

In an embodiment, the process or system is a protein digestion column orapplication.

In another embodiment, the process or system is a lab-on-a-chip processor system.

In an embodiment, the enzyme aggregate coated fiber(s) is/are used asbiosensors or in a biosensor application or system.

In an embodiment, the enzyme aggregate coated materials or fiber(s)is/are used in a bioconversion process or application.

In an embodiment, the enzyme aggregate coated materials or fiber(s)is/are used in a bioremediation process or application.

In an embodiment, the enzyme aggregate coated materials or fiber(s)is/are used in a biofuel cell and/or in a biofuel cell process orsystem.

In an embodiment, the enzyme aggregate coated material is used in adetergent application or system.

In an embodiment, the enzyme aggregate coated material is used in apolymerase chain reaction process or system.

In another embodiment, the enzyme aggregate coated materials or fiber(s)is/are used as a component of a proteomic analysis process or system.

Terms

The term “seed” as used herein refers to the initial enzyme moleculesthat attach to the fiber substrates providing additional sites forattachment of additional enzymes and/or enzyme aggregates furtherloading such moieties to the polymer fibers.

The term “cross-linking” as used herein refers to the process ofchemically joining two or more molecules by a covalent bond.Cross-linking reagents include, but are not limited to, homobifunctionaland heterobifunctional reagents. Homobifunctional cross-linking reagentshave two identical reactive functional groups available for binding,including, e.g., di-aldehydes, di-isocyanates, di-anhydrides,di-epoxides, di-imides (e.g., a carbodiimide reagent such as1-ethyl-3-dimethyl aminopropylcarbodiimide (EDC), or the like.Heterobifunctional cross-linking reagents have two different reactivefunctional groups that allow, e.g., sequential step-wise conjugations.Heterobifunctional reactive groups include amine-reactiveN-hydro-succinimide-esters (e.g., NHS or sulfo-NHS reagents) andsulfhydryl reactive groups, including, e.g., maleimides, pyridyldisulfides, and α-haloacetyls. Reactive functional groups of eitherclass of reagents may be photoreactive or thermoreactive. No limitationsare intended. All cross-linking reagents capable of binding enzymes tothe surface of a material are encompassed herein. Cross-linking reagentsinclude, but are not limited to, e.g., di-aldehydes, glutaraldehyde [CASNo. 111-30-8]), aldehydes (—CHO), di-imides, 1-ethyl-3-dimethylaminopropylcarbodiimide (EDC), di-isocyanates, isocyanates (—NCO),di-anhydrides, anhydrides, di-epoxides, epoxides, and reagents havingfunctional groups selected from aminyl (—NH), sulfhydryl (—SH), carbonyl(—C═O), carboxyl (—COOH), alcohols (—OH), silyl (e.g.,bis(trimethoxysilyl) hexane, or combinations thereof.

In general, reactive functional groups of the materials, fibers, andenzymes and enzyme aggregates disclosed herein include, but are notlimited to, e.g., di-aldehydes, aldehydes (—CHO), di-imides,di-isocyanates, isocyanates (—NCO), di-anhydrides, anhydrides,di-epoxides, epoxides, aminyl (—NH), sulfhydryl (—SH), carboxyl (—COOH),alcohols (—OH), silyl, or combinations thereof.

The term “coating” as used herein refers to a covering composed ofenzymes and/or enzyme aggregates providing coverage at a level that isother than a monolayer.

The term “high loading” as used herein means enzymatic capacity oractivity that is greater than that provided by a monolayer equivalent ofenzymes.

The term “high activity” as used herein refers to enzymatic activityprovided by the enzyme aggregate coating that is greater than activityprovided by a monolayer equivalent of covalently attached enzymes.

The term “high stability” as used herein refers to an absence ofmeasurable loss in enzyme activity observed under rigorous (>200 rpm)shaking conditions for at least a minimum of 100 days.

The term “substrate” as used herein in reference to enzyme-mediatedreactions refers to a molecule or molecules undergoing reaction or thatare reacting.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

A more complete appreciation of the invention will be readily obtainedby reference to the following description of the accompanying drawing inwhich like numerals in different figures represent the same structuresor elements.

FIG. 1 illustrates an electrospinning apparatus for preparing nanoscaleand microscale polymer fibers.

FIG. 2 illustrates preparation of high activity enzyme aggregatecoatings for fibers, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3 illustrates preparation of high activity enzyme aggregatecoatings for fibers involving use of “seed” enzymes, according toanother embodiment of the invention

FIG. 4 is a plot showing stabilities (as measured by relative activitiesin an aqueous buffer solution shaking at 200 rpm) for freeα-chymotrypsin (CT), adsorbed CT, covalently attached CT, andCT-aggregate coatings on nanofibers as a function of time.

FIG. 5 is a plot showing stability of a trypsin-aggregate coating (i.e.,NF-T-GA) covalently bound to polystyrene (PS) and polystyrene-maleicanhydride (PSMA) co-polymer fibers, the stability measured as a functionof time compared to free trypsin (TR).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

A process for preparing high stability, high activity biocatalyticmaterials is disclosed and processes for using same. The biocatalyticmaterials exhibit high-activity, high-stability, and high-enzyme loadingcapacity suitable for heterogeneous environments and applications. Theterm “fiber” as used herein refers to elongate, generally threadlikestructures including, but not limited to, nanofibers, nanotubes,microfibers, microtubes, macrofibers, macrotubes, or combinationsthereof. Fibers selected for use may have sizes (e.g., diameters) in therange of from about 5 nm to about 30,000 nm. Fibers have lengths ofgreater than or equal to about 1,000 nm. Fibers may further comprisematerials selected from, e.g., polymers, co-polymers, glasses,inorganics, ceramics, composites, or combinations thereof. However, theinvention is not limited thereto. For example, enzyme-aggregate coatingsmay also be applied to, and/or utilized in conjunction with, othersuitable materials selected from the same or different compound classes.In addition, such coatings may be equally applied and/or structurallyattached to various surfaces of varying sizes and dimensions including,e.g., flat surfaces. Thus, no limitations are intended.

FIG. 1 illustrates a system 100 of a simple design for electrospinning(generating) polymer fibers suitable for use in conjunction with theinvention, described further in Example 1 below, suitable for use inconjunction with the invention. System 100 includes a syringe 10 (e.g.,3 mL plastic, Becton-Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, N.J., USA) equipped witha 30-gauge stainless steel needle 12 (e.g., Precision-glide,Becton-Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, N.J., USA) for delivering a polymersolution. Polymer solution is delivered in conjunction with infusionpump 20 (e.g., a model PHD-2000 infusion pump, Holliston, Mass., USA).Rates are variable for delivery of polymer fluid. System 100 furthercomprises a high-voltage power supply 30 (e.g., a model ES30P-10W, GammaHigh Voltage Research, Ormond Beach, Fla., USA) for applying a bias,e.g., of 7 kV, to needle 12. Electrospun fibers are collected on a clean(grounded) aluminum foil sheet 40 placed at a distance from the tip ofneedle 12 in the range from about 7 cm to about 10 cm, but are notlimited thereto. No limitations are hereby intended. For example, aswill be understood by those of skill in the art, system 100 may furthercomprise any of a number of additional components, vessels, and/ordevices without limitation. For example, pressure and temperature ofreactor 10 may be controlled in conjunction with programmable pressureand temperature controller(s) or other like devices and/or systems. Inaddition, systems and/or devices for pumping, transferring, spraying,delivering, mixing, pressurizing, heating, and/or storing fluids,reagents, and/or solvents may be used without limitation. In additionsystem 100 may incorporate devices for automated collection and handlingof generated fibers without limitation. As will be appreciated by thoseof skill in the art, many and varied systems and processes may beemployed for manufacture of both fibers and/or other materials uponwhich coatings described herein are attached. Thus, all processes and/orsystems for preparing fibers and/or materials that will find applicationas substrates in conjunction with enzyme aggregate coatings are withinthe scope of the invention. No limitations are intended.

FIG. 2 illustrates a process 200 for preparation of high activity enzymeaggregate coatings and fibers. In the figure, a copolymer (PS and PSMA)fiber 210 is illustrated. Fiber 210 is coated with a coating 250comprising highly crosslinked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs) 240 that are(e.g., covalently) attached to at least one functional groups 215 on thesurface of fiber 210. Attachment of coating 250 to fiber 210 may beeffected in a step-wise and/or in a batch-wise fashion. For example, asillustrated in FIG. 3, enzyme “seeds” 225 may attach to functionalgroups 215 at the surface of fiber 210 in a step-wise fashion.Subsequent treatment with linking agent 230, e.g., glutaraldehyde (GA)230, in the presence of additional enzymes 220 crosslinks enzymes 220 to“seed” enzymes 225 at the surface of fiber 210, covalently attachingthem forming enzyme aggregates 240 from solution to the covalentlyattached seed enzyme molecules 225. The crosslinked enzymes 220 and/orenzyme aggregates 240 improve both the enzyme activity due to increasedenzyme loading as well as the stability of the enzyme aggregate 240coating 250. However, the process is not limited thereto.

In an alternate embodiment, enzymes 220 cross-linked as enzymeaggregates 240 in conjunction with linking agent 230 may be directlyattached to functional groups 215 on the surface of fiber 210, bypassingneed for a complex step involving attachment of “seed” enzymes 225.Thus, no limitations are intended.

The CLEAs 240 have high stability due to the highly cross-linked matrixof enzyme aggregates 240 providing high enzyme immobilization and highenzyme loading and thus high enzyme activity overall to fibers and/ormaterials to which aggregates 240 are attached, forming coating 250.High activity and high stability provide fiber 210 and/or othermaterials coated thereby with biocatalytic properties as they arebiologically and/or catalytically active and useful in heterogenousenvironments and systems.

The following examples are intended to promote a further understandingof the present invention. Example 1 describes preparation of PS and/orPS+PSMA nanofibers. Example 2 details the physical characterization ofthe polymer nanofibers. Example 2 details the nature of attachment ofenzymes and/or enzyme aggregates to polymer fibers. Example 4 describesactivity, leaching and stability of α-Chymotrypsin (CT) immobilizedfibers. Example 5 describes preparation and activity of enzyme(α-Chymotrypsin) immobilized aggregate coating and fibers. Example 6describes activity, leaching, and stability data of Trypsin (TR)immobilized fibers.

EXAMPLE 1 Preparation (Electrospinning) of Fibers using PS and/orPS+PSMA

Polymer fibers of polystyrene (PS) and/or poly(styrene co-maleicanhydride) (PSMA) were prepared from polymer solutions of polystyrene(PS) (MW=860,000) (Pressure Chemical Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., USA) orPS+PSMA prepared at room temperature by dissolving PS or a mixture of PSand poly(styrene-co-maleic anhydride) (PSMA) (MW=224,000; maieicanhydride content=7 wt %) (Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis., USA) at a 2:1weight ratio of PS:PSMA in tetrahydrofuran (THF) (HPLC, 99.9%) (Burdickand Jackson, Muskegon, Mich., USA), followed by magnetic stirring for1-2 h. THF was used as the solvent due to its high vapour pressure, highvolatility, and tendency to generate high pore densities. Theconcentration of PS and PSMA in the solutions was varied from 9 to 23 wt% and 5 to 9 wt % respectively, depending on the required size range ofthe fibers. As the concentration of the polymer (PS and/or PSMA) in thesolvent increases, viscosity of the polymer solution increases, thusyielding thicker diameter fibers.

The polymer solution was loaded into a 3 mL plastic syringe(Becton-Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, N.J., USA) equipped with a 30-gaugestainless steel needle (Precision glide, Becton-Dickinson, FranklinLakes, N.J., USA) made of stainless steel. A bias of 7 kV was applied tothe needle using a high-voltage supply (ES30P-10W, Gamma High VoltageResearch, Ormond Beach, Fla., USA). The solution was fed at a rate of0.15 mL per hour using a syringe pump (PHD-2000 Infusion, HarvardApparatus, Holliston, Mass., USA). The electrospun fibers were collectedon clean aluminium foil (connected to the ground) placed at a suitabledistance (7-10 cm) from the tip of the needle.

For this study, two different thickness fibers were synthesized-one lessthan 1 μm (e.g., nanofibers) and the other larger than 1 μm (e.g.,microfibers), but is not limited thereto. Size of fibers (whethernanofibers or microfibers) is controlled by appropriate selection ofconcentrations for both PS and PSMA.

EXAMPLE 2 Physical Characterization of Electrospun PS or PS+PSMANanofibers

Electrospun polymer nanofiber and microfiber specimens were analyzedwith scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and reflection-absorptioninfrared spectroscopy (RAIRS).

For SEM, a thin layer of gold (˜10 nm) is coated to prevent charging.Image characterization was done using a PhilipsXL-20SEM (PhilipsElectronOptics, Eindhoven, the Netherlands). For RAIRS, the e-spunfibers were collected oh a glass slide. The RAIRS analysis was performedusing a NEXUS 670 infrared spectrometer (ThermoNicolet, Wis., USA).Incident and reflection angles for the IR beam were 82°; spectralresolution was 4 cm⁻¹.

The detailed size distribution were obtained with statistical analysisof fibers imaged with SEM. The fiber diameter of the thin one is 444±106nm and that of the thick one is 3.04±1.03. Hereafter, the former will becalled nanofibers and the latter will be called microfibers. Nanosizefibers are of primary interest for enzyme immobilization studies.

In addition to the size distribution, SEM analysis revealed a fewnotable features. First, nano-sized fibers sometimes show formation ofbeads along the fibers while micro-sized fibers are almost bead-free.Results may be related to Taylor-cone instability during theelectrospinning process, as described e.g., by Huang et al., Compos.Sci. Technol. 63, pp. 2223-53. The process was adjusted to minimize beadformation on nanofibers and the samples used for enzyme immobilizationwere largely bead free. Second, high resolution SEM images show that thesurface texture of electrospun fibers contains small holes. The typicalsize of surface holes is about 100-400 nm. Formation of holes on thesurface of the electrospun fibers is often observed especially when ahigh vapor pressure solvent is used. On the nanofibers, ‘holes’ exist asdepressions whose diameters are similar to the diameter of the fiber,and are sufficiently common that the fibers have a somewhat irregularshape.

EXAMPLE 3 Attachment of Enzymes and/or Enzyme Aggregates to PolymerFibers

The PSMA copolymer is an illustrative copolymer for generating nanoscaleand microscale fibers described herein given that the copolymer containsa maleic anhydride (MA) functional group that readily forms covalentbonds with primary amines of enzyme molecules. As illustrated in FIG. 2.

The approach using copolymers such as PSMA can be used with any otherpolymer fibers if the maleic anhydride group is intact and exposed atthe fiber surface.

RAIRS spectra showed presence of maleic anhydride (MA) groups in theelectrospun fibers. In particular, the IR spectrum of the PS nanofibersample showed all the characteristic bands of polystyrene: a C—H stretchof the aromatic ring at 3000-3100 cm⁻¹, aromatic C—H deformation of thearomatic ring at 1450 and 1490 cm⁻¹, a C═C stretch in the aromatic ringat 1605 cm⁻¹, and aromatic overtones over the range from 1700-2000 cm⁻¹.The IR spectrum of the PS+PSMA fiber exhibits additional peaksrepresenting the anhydride group: an asymmetric (as) C═O stretch at 1860cm⁻¹ and symmetric (sym) C═O stretch at 1780 cm⁻¹.

EXAMPLE 4 Activity, Leaching, and Stability of α-Chymotrypsin(CT)-Immobilized Fibers

α-Chymotrypsin (CT) accelerates cleavage (e.g., via hydrolysis) ofpeptide bonds linking one amino acid to another amino acid in apolypeptide chain. CT was used as an illustrative enzyme to testcatalytic stability and activity of the enzyme in enzyme-immobilizedfibers.

Activity of CT-immobilized nanofibers was assessed in conjunction withabsorption measurements at 410 nm of a reaction product (p-nitroaniline)resulting from enzymatic action (i.e., hydrolysis) of a substrateprotein material, N-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe p-nitroaniline (TP) in anaqueous buffer solution (10 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.8) underrigorous shaking (200 rpm) conditions. Activity data were calculatedfrom the slope of the 410 nm absorption line as a function of time,normalized to the total weight of nanofibers used.

Leaching of CT was also monitored by measuring the protein contents ofthe aqueous buffer solution (10 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.8) undershaking condition (200 rpm) at each time point. Leached CT was measuredby absorption measurement at 280 nm.

Stability (catalytic) was also investigated as a function of time bycontinuous incubation of the nanofiber samples in the same aqueousbuffer (10 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.8) under rigorous shaking (200 rpm)conditions. At each time point, the residual activity was measured, andthe relative activity was calculated from the ratio of residual activityto initial activity. After each activity measurement, samples wereextensively washed with fresh buffer to remove all residual amounts ofsubstrate and product from the sample. Table 1 provides initial datacollected over a 2-day period for catalytic activity and leaching for CTcovalently attached to polymer fibers compared to CT adsorbed to polymerfibers, respectively. Stability data are presented in FIG. 4. TABLE 1Activity and leaching data for α-chymotrypsin (CT) adsorbed andcovalently attached to polymer (PS and PS + PSMA) fibers, respectively.Covalently Attached CT on PS + PSMA Adsorbed CT on PS fibers fibersLeached Leached Activity Enzyme in Enzyme in (μM/ Buffer Activity Buffermin/mg)^(a) (μg)^(b) (μM/min/mg)^(a) (μg)^(b) Day 0 0.051 N.A.^(c) Day 00.098 N.A.^(c) Day 1 0.008 3.8 Day 1 0.023 3.2 Day 2 0.005 1.0 Day 20.014 N.D.^(d)^(a)Activity was measured by the hydrolysis of TP(N-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe p-nitroaniline) in an aqueous buffer (10 mMsodium phosphate, pH 7.8) and normalized to the total weight ofnanofibers.^(b)Leached quantity of CT was measured by absorbance at 280 nm after aone day incubation in a shaking condition (200 rpm).^(c)N.A. = Not Applicable. Excessive washings were performed right aftereach CT immobilization until no leached CT was observed in the washingsolution within a limited time span (for about one hour).^(d)N.D. = Not Detectable. After 30 days incubation, neither CT activitynor CT leaching could be observed with adsorbed and covalently attachedCT samples.

Table 1 shows the initial activity of PS+PSMA nanofibers with covalentlyattached CT was 1.9 times greater (0.098 vs. 0.051 μM/min/mg) than thatof PS nanofibers with adsorbed CT. Leaching was presumed to be a resultof fibers initially being coated with both covalently attached andadsorbed CT molecules. During the first day of incubation in a shakingcondition, fibers with covalently attached CT and those with adsorbed CTboth showed significant leaching of CT. After day 2 of incubation, nofurther leaching of CT molecules was detected from fibers withcovalently attached CT, while PS fibers with absorbed CT continued toleach additional CT. FIG. 4 shows that after the first few days (whenboth fibers leach CT), fibers with covalently attached CT exhibitedgreater stability and activity. Results suggest that covalent attachmentto surface-available anhydride groups occurred. FIG. 4 also shows theactivity of free CT in solution for comparison. The activity of free CTrapidly decreased due to autolysis (half-life of 5 h) while the adsorbedand covalently attached CT showed a marginal improvement of enzymestability with half-lives of 18 and 35 h, respectively based on all datapoints collected (including those during which initial leaching ofadsorbed enzyme from the covalently attached preparation was presumed tobe occurring). Results indicate some improvement in activity andstability of CT is achieved when covalently attached covalently toPS+PSMA polymer fibers as compared to adsorption on PS fibers.

EXAMPLE 5 Preparation and Activity of Enzyme (α-Chymotrypsin)Immobilized Aggregate Coatings and Fibers

Enzyme activity is important for successful applications involvingenzymes in a variety of heterogeneous immobilization systems. Althoughcovalent attachment provides some improvement in enzyme (e.g., CT)activity and stability of fibers compared to adsorbed CT, results werenot expected to be sufficient to maintain high enzyme activityindefinitely under rigorous shaking conditions (200 rpm) due to enzymedenaturation. To develop a more stable and active enzyme system, polymernanofibers and microfibers comprising enzyme-aggregate coatings werefabricated as described hereinafter.

PS+PSMA fibers were prepared as described in Example 1. PS+PSMAnanofibers were incubated in glass vials containing 1 mL of 10 mMphosphate buffer (pH 7.8) and 20 mg α-chymotrypsin (CT) (Sigma, StLouis, Mo., USA). Vials were shaken at 200 rpm at room temperature for30 minutes, and then moved to a refrigerator for additional rocking at30 rpm. Following a 90-minute incubation at 4° C., glutaraldehyde (GA)Sigma (St Louis, Mo.) solution was added to a final GA concentration ofabout 0.5% w/v, and the mixture was rocked (on a rocker plate) at 30 rpmat 4° C. overnight. The enzyme-aggregate-coated nanofibers weretransferred to new glass vials, and washed with 100 mM phosphate buffer(pH 7.8) and 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.8). To cap unreacted aldehyde groups,nanofibers were incubated in Tris-HCl buffer for 30 minutes. Aftercapping, nanofibers were washed extensively with 10 mM phosphate buffer(pH 7.8) until no enzymes were detected in the washing solution (˜fivewashings). The enzyme-aggregate-coated nanofibers were stored in 10 mMphosphate buffer (pH 7.8) at 4 volts DC. Two control samples were alsoprepared for comparison with enzyme-aggregate-coated nanofibers, (i) afirst with covalently attached CT on nanofibers, prepared by omittingthe GA treatment step, and (ii) a second prepared using simpleadsorption of CT without covalent linkages between CT and polymernanofibers, prepared using PS nanofibers instead of PS+PSMA nanofibers.

Activity of the CT-immobilized nanofiber coatings was determined asdescribed in Example 4 using absorption measurements of the reactionproduct (p-nitroaniline) resulting from enzymatic action (i.e.,hydrolysis) of N-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe p-nitroaniline (TP) in aqueousbuffer (10 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.8). ˜1 mg of coated (biocatalytic)fibers were transferred into new glass vials, and 4.04 ml of 10 mMphosphate buffer (pH 7.8) containing 40 μl of TP (at a concentration of10 mg mL⁻¹ in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma, St Louis, Mo.) wasadded to initiate the enzymatic reaction. Vials were shaken at 200 rpmand aliquots were removed in a time-dependent fashion. Thep-nitroaniline product of enzymatic catalysis in each aliquot wasmeasured by the absorbance at 410 nm (A410) and activity was calculatedfrom the slope of the A410 line with time. Samples were washed a minimumof three times after each activity measurement with 10 mM phosphatebuffer solution (pH 7.8) to remove residual amounts of (TP) substrateand (p-nitroaniline) catalysis product from each sample. Leaching of CTwas also monitored by measuring protein contents of the aqueous buffersolution at each time point. At each time point, residual activity wasmeasured, and relative activity was calculated as the ratio of residualactivity to initial activity. Table 2 compares initial enzyme activitiesfor nanoscale (<1 μm) and microscale (>1 μm) fibers. TABLE 2 Initialactivity measured for nanoscale (<1 μm) and microscale (>1 μm) polymer(PS + PSMA) fibers. Initial Activity Sample Description (μM/min)/mgfibers^(a) 1 Covalently attached CT on 0.098 PS + PSMA fibers (<1 μm) 2Covalently attached CT on 0.076 PS + PSMA (>1 μm) 3 CT-aggregate coatingon 0.868 PS + PSMA (<1 μm) 4 CT-aggregate coating on 0.633 PS + PSMA (>1μm)^(a)Activity was measured by hydrolysis ofN-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-p-nitro aniline in an aqueous buffer (10 mMsodium phosphate, pH 7.8) and normalized to the total weight of polymerfibers.

Results for samples 1 and 2 represent, at best, activity associated withat most a monolayer of CT coverage, as insufficient quantity of enzymeswas available to form aggregate coatings. Results 3 and 4 in Table 2compare aggregate coating results for microscale and nanoscale fibers,respectively. Activity (per mg) measured for covalently attached CT onmicrofibers was 78% of the of nonofibers. The activity (per mg) ofCT-aggregate-coated microfibers (>1 μm) was 73% of the activity withCT-aggregate-coated nanofibers (>1 μm). In addition, activity ofCT-aggregate-coated nanofibers was eight times higher than the initialactivity of nanofibers with only covalently attached CT. Thissubstantial improvement of CT activity with CT-aggregate-coatednanofibers can be explained by the much higher enzyme loading effectedat the surface of the fiber. No leaching of enzymes was detected fromCT-aggregate-coated nanofibers from the beginning of incubation undershaking conditions. FIG. 4 shows the stability of CT-aggregate-coatednanofibers over a period of 9 days (shaking conditions as usual).

Essentially no loss of activity was measured over a period in excess of33 days under rigorous shaking conditions. The extended stability andcatalytic activity observed for the enzyme-aggregate-coated fibers undera shaking condition indicates the covalent attachment of enzymeaggregates on the external surfaces of the fibers creates a newimmobilized enzyme system effective in stabilizing the enzyme activity.In particular, the (enzyme) stability of CT-aggregate-coated nanofibersis greatly improved over that of either monolayer-coated fibers or thatof the free (unattached) CT. The stability of the CT-aggregate coatingshowed negligible loss of CT activity for a period of more than 1 month(data to 33 days were collected). Further, insufficient loss of activitywas measured in which to estimate or calculate a half life for theexperiment. This dramatic stabilization of CT in the immobilizedaggregate coating can be explained by several factors, including absenceof CT leaching and good stability of cross-linked enzyme aggregates(CLEAs) themselves. It is also noteworthy that enzyme aggregationprevented the autolysis of CT molecules.

Catalytic stability of the coated fibers was also determined bycontinuous incubation of fiber samples in the same aqueous buffer (10 mMphosphate buffer, pH 7.8) under rigorous shaking (200 rpm) conditions.Table 3 presents results for catalytic activity over a 4 day period fornanofibers (NF) treated with and without linking agent glutaraldehyde(GA) following adsorption with α-chymotrypsin (CT), i.e., NF-CT-GA, ascompared to those adsorbed with α-chymotrypsin alone, i.e., NF-CT. TABLE3 Activity measured for nanofibers treated with and withoutglutaraldehyde following adsorption with α-chymotrypsin. ActivityActivity @Time @Time t = 0 t = 4 Samples TreatmentΔ (days)* (days)* 1NF-CT-GA 6.720 × 10⁻¹ 6.659 × 10⁻¹ 2 NF-CT 1.758 × 10⁻³ 4.853 × 10⁻⁴*Units of activity: (μM/min)/mg; activity was divided by fiber weight(mg).ΔNF-CT-GA: glutaraldehyde (GA) treated nanofibers (NF) followingadsorption with α-chymotrypsin (CT);NF-CT: nanofibers adsorbed with CT only.

Table 3 shows negligible loss of activity for the nanofibers treatedwith glutaraldehyde following adsorption with α-chymotrypsin (i.e.,NF-CT-GA) as compared to the nanofibers adsorbed with α-chymotrypsinalone, (i.e., NF-CT). FIG. 4 shows relative activities over a longertime period, i.e., upwards of 9 days. The initial activity of PS+PSMAnanofibers with covalently attached CT was 1.9 times higher than that ofPS nanofibers with adsorbed CT (Table 1). It is presumed that the fibersare initially coated with both covalently attached and adsorbed CTmolecules. During the first day of incubation in a shaking condition,fibers with covalently attached CT and those with adsorbed CT bothshowed significant CT leaching. No more leaching of CT molecules wasdetected after 2-day incubation from nanofibers with covalently attachedCT while PS nanofibers with absorbed CT leached more CT. As seen in thefigure, after the first few days (when both fibers leach CT), fiberswith covalently attached CT exhibit greater stability of the activity.By comparison, activity of free CT rapidly decreased due to autolysis(half-life of 5 h) while the adsorbed and covalently attached CT showeda marginal improvement of enzyme stability with half-lives of 18 and 35h, respectively, based on all data points (including those during whichinitial leaching of adsorbed enzyme from the covalently attachedpreparation is presumed to occur). Results suggest activity stability ispromoted by covalent attachment to surface-available anhydride groups.

To check the role of covalently attached seed enzyme molecules in thefabrication of CT-aggregate coating, we prepared the PS nanofibers byelectrospinning a PS solution without addition of PSMA copolymer. Then,we adsorbed CT on the PS nanofibers and treated them with 0.5% GAsolution, which is exactly the same as the fabrication process ofCT-aggregate coating on the PS+PSMA nanofibers. The final nanofiberswould consist of PS nanofibers and enzyme aggregates without anycovalent linkages between them. This sample exhibited a serious leachingof enzymes and the quantity of leached CT was 4.6 μg after 1 dayincubation. It was observed that white powders of enzyme aggregatesseparated from PS nanofibers and leached into a buffer solution. Theactivity of this control sample continuously decreased in a shakingcondition, and the relative activity was 85% after 2 day incubation. Thecalculated half-life of this control was 11.5 days, much shorter thanthat of CT-aggregate-coated PS+PSMA nanofibers. Results suggest thecovalently attached enzymes play a significant role in developing astable form of enzyme aggregate coating on the surface of the fibers.

The availability of the anhydride group was again supported bystabilities of the PS+PSMA nanofibers with covalently attached CT orcovalently attached CT aggregates, compared to PS fibers with onlyadsorbed CT or PS fibers treated to produce enzyme aggregates, asdescribed hereinabove.

EXAMPLE 6 Activity and Stability of Enzyme (Trypsin) ImmobilizedAggregate Coatings and Fibers

Fibers were prepared as described in Example 1 and coated as describedin Example 4 with aggregates of trypsin (TR), an alternate enzyme andtested as described herein. Stabilities of free TR, adsorbed TR,covalently attached TR, and TR-aggregate coating on fibers in an aqueousbuffer solution (10 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.8) under a shakingcondition (200 rpm). Relative activity was again calculated from theratio of residual activity at each time point to initial activity. FIG.5 presents stability data for the TR-aggregate coating, and also showsactivity of free TR and covalently attached TR in solution forcomparison._Data presented in FIG. 5 show negligible loss of TR activityover a period of up to about 120 days. Activity loss was sufficientlylow as to calculate an estimate for half life for the TR-aggregatecoated fibers. This dramatic stabilization and immobilization of TR as acoating of TR-enzyme aggregates on the fibers can be explained byseveral factors, including, but not limited to, e.g., no leaching of TRenzyme, and cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs). Enzyme aggregationalso prevents autolysis of TR enzymes from the fibers. Half life ofcovalently-attached TR was 2.2 days (0.8 days in another batch ofpreparation). The half-life of the TR coating on fibers could not bemeasured since there was no inactivation even after 118 days ofincubation under shaking conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Fibers and/or materials providing a large surface area for theattachment of enzymes and/or enzyme aggregates are ideal substrates forimmobilizing enzymes and can provide high enzyme activity, stability,and loading capacity to the fibers and/or materials. A unique approachfor fabricating enzyme-aggregate coatings on surfaces of fibers has beendescribed. These enzyme-aggregate-coated fibers and coatings alsoexhibit extended stability of the catalytic activity under a shakingcondition indicating that covalent attachment of enzyme aggregates onexternal surfaces of fibers and/or materials creates a new immobilizedenzyme system effective in stabilizing the enzyme activity. Theseaggregate coatings have been demonstrated to improve not only the enzymeactivity but also the enzyme stability when applied to fibers of varioussizes. These active and stable fiber mats were highly durable and couldbe easily recovered from a solution even after more than 1-monthincubation in a rigorous shaking condition. This new approach of enzymecoating on nanofibers, yielding high activity and stability, creates auseful new biocatalytic immobilized enzyme system with potentialapplications in bioconversion, bioremediation, and biosensors.

While the preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shownand described, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that manychanges and modifications may be made without departing from theinvention in its true scope and broader aspects. The appended claims aretherefore intended to cover all such changes and modifications as fallwithin the spirit and scope of the invention.

1. A process for preparing a biocatalytic material, comprising thesteps: providing a material having one or more functional groups thereoncapable of covalent attachment to functional groups of crosslinkedenzymes and/or enzyme aggregates forming a biocatalytic coating and/or abiocatalytic material when attached, wherein the covalent attachmentbetween the functional group(s) on the surface of the material and theenzymes and/or enzyme aggregates in the biocatalytic coating and/or thebiocatalytic material provides substantial stability to the biocatalyticcoating and/or the biocatalytic material; and whereby the biocatalyticactivity and enzyme loading capacity of the biocatalytic coating and/orthe biocatalytic material is greater than that of a monolayer ofenzymes.
 2. The process of claim 1, wherein the material is a fiber(s)selected from nanofibers, microfibers, macrofibers, nanotubes, carbonnanotubes, microtubes, macrotubes, or combinations thereof.
 3. Theprocess of claim 2, wherein the fibers comprise functional groups on thesurface capable of covalent attachment to functional groups of theenzymes and enzyme aggregrates.
 4. The process of claim 3, wherein thefiber(s) is composed of polystyrene and poly(styrene-co-maleicanhydride) of substantially equal proportions wherein carbonyl (C═O)functional groups of the anhydride co-polymer molecule of the fiberprovides for covalent attachment of the enzymes to the surface of thefibers.
 5. The process of claim 2, wherein the fiber(s) has a thicknessof from about 5 nm to about 30,000 nm.
 6. The process of claim 2,wherein the fiber(s) has a thickness of about 20 nm.
 7. The process ofclaim 2, wherein the fiber(s) has a length greater than or equal toabout 1,000 nm.
 8. The process of claim 1, wherein the materialcomprises at least one member selected from the group consisting ofpolymers, co-polymers, glasses, inorganics, ceramics, composites, orcombinations thereof.
 9. The process of claim 1, wherein the stabilityof the biocatalytic coating and/or the biocatalytic material comprises aduration of greater than about 100 days under shaking conditions at 200rpm in an aqueous buffer at room temperature without measurable loss inactivity.
 10. The process of claim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coatingis a multilayer coating comprising enzymes and/or enzyme aggregates. 11.The process of claim 10, wherein the multilayer coating comprises two ormore layers of enzymes and/or enzyme aggregates.
 12. The process ofclaim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coating provides other than amonolayer of coverage at the surface of the material.
 13. The process ofclaim 1, wherein the one or more functional group(s) on the surface ofthe material and/or of the enzymes and enzyme aggregates is selectedfrom the group consisting of di-aldehydes, glutaraldehyde, aldehydes(—CHO), di-imides, di-isocyanates, isocyanates (—NCO), di-anhydrides,anhydrides, di-epoxides, epoxides, and reagents having functional groupsselected from aminyl (—NH), sulfhydryl (—SH), carbonyl (—C═O), carboxyl(—COOH), alcohols (—OH), silyl, or combinations thereof.
 14. The processof claim 1, wherein the crosslinking of the enzyme aggregates attachedto the material is effected in conjunction with a crosslinking reagent.15. The process of claim 14, wherein the crosslinking reagent isselected from the group consisting of di-aldehydes, glutaraldehydealdehydes (—CHO), di-imides, 1-ethyl-3-dimethyl aminopropylcarbodiimide(EDC), di-isocyanates, isocyanates (—NCO), di-anhydrides, anhydrides,di-epoxides, epoxides, and reagents having functional groups selectedfrom aminyl (—NH), sulfhydryl (—SH), carbonyl (—C═O), carboxyl (—COOH),alcohols (—OH), silyl, bis(trimethoxysilyl)hexane, or combinationsthereof.
 16. The process of claim 1, wherein attachment of thebiocatalytic coating to the surface of the material is effected inconjunction with use of seed enzymes.
 17. The process of claim 1,wherein the covalent attachment is between a functional group of a seedenzyme and a functional group of the enzyme and/or enzyme aggregates ofthe biocatalytic coating yielding a biocatalytic material.
 18. Theprocess of claim 17, wherein the seed enzymes further crosslink with theenzyme aggregates forming the biocatalytic coating at the surface of thematerial.
 19. The process of claim 1, wherein the attaching of thebiocatalytic coating to the surface of the material is by directattachment to the functional groups of the material.
 20. The process ofclaim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coating and/or the biocatalyticmaterial is used in a biocatalytic process or system.
 21. The process ofclaim 20, wherein the biocatalytic process or system is a proteindigestion column process or system.
 22. The process of claim 20, whereinthe biocatalytic process or system is a lab-on-a-chip process or system.23. The process of claim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coating and/or thebiocatalytic material is used in a bioconversion process or system. 24.The process of claim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coating and/or thebiocatalytic material is used in a bioremediation process or system. 25.The process of claim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coating and/or thebiocatalytic material is used in a biofuel cell process or system. 26.The process of claim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coating and/or thebiocatalytic material is used in a detergent process or system.
 27. Theprocess of claim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coating and/or thebiocatalytic material is used in a polymerase chain reaction process orsystem.
 28. The process of claim 1, wherein the biocatalytic coatingand/or the biocatalytic material is used in a biosensor process orsystem.